Introduction
The Wilshire Center Business Improvement District (WCBID), situated within the Wilshire Center District, initiated North America’s first business improvement district-based greenhouse gas reduction program, the Cool District, which focuses on existing buildings and infrastructure. On July 19, 2007, the Wilshire Center Business Improvement District’s Board of Directors approved the Wilshire Center Cool District concept and pledged to reduce the district’s GHG emissions by at least 2% per year over the next 40 years (2010-2050). The Cool District program was inspired by and modeled after the Sierra Club’s Cool Cities Initiative and their Two Percent Solution program.
The Wilshire Center District, a Regional Commercial Center per the City of Los Angeles’ General Plan, is approximately 100 acres in size and bounded by 3rd Street on the north, 7th Street on the south, Hoover Street on the east and Wilton Place on the west. The WCBID encompasses over 33 million square feet of space, with 12 million, 19.5 million, and 1.5 million square feet allocated to the residential, office, and retail sectors, respectively. The District is home to about 25,000 residents and host to an estimated 75,000 workers.
The WCBID was established in 1995 to help improve the area by offering increased security and maintenance, attracting businesses and creating jobs. Rather than waiting for “someone else” to do something about climate change, WCBID Board and management stepped outside their traditional arenas and decided to take the lead.
The science behind global warming and climate change is in, and the majority of the world’s leading climate scientist and researchers have come to the same conclusion; we must cut our greenhouse gas emissions to slow climate change, or face serious consequences.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) identifies 6 GHGs; Carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide (N2O), Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), Perfluorocarbons (PHCs), and Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6). Our focus is on CO2, which is the most prevalent of the GHGs and remains in our atmosphere from the time of emission for over 100 years. Man-made carbon dioxide is produced by combusting fossil fuels, such as gasoline, natural gas, and diesel that we use to power our vehicles, equipment and stationary sources such as power plants.
State and local governments are taking action. The California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 (AB 32) seeks to reduce GHG emissions to 1990 levels by 2020, a decrease of about 25%. The goal of Los Angeles Green LA Climate Action Plan is to reduce both municipal government and community-wide GHG emissions 35% below 1990 levels by 2030.
Climate change starts and stops with us. The Cool District’s strategies for reducing GHG emissions include encouraging buildings to become more energy efficient, utilizing renewable energy sources, encouraging residents and workers to make better use of our public transportation system, and to make their next car purchase a green vehicle.
Why us? Here are just a few reasons: our government can’t do it all; we all contribute to climate change, so we should all contribute to climate protection; saving energy saves money; and safeguarding our climate safeguards our future. The Wilshire Center Cool District Plan can become a model for other Business Improvement Districts (BIDs), and a mechanism for sharing the lessons we learn. There are currently 36 BIDs in Los Angeles and about a thousand throughout North America; our cumulative impact could be tremendous
The Cool District Plan is a way to create many green jobs. In the near future green jobs could consist of auditors, energy/water conservation specialists, energy star equipment installers, contractors for electrical, mechanical, plumbing, windows, insulation, weather stripping, etc. We are laying the foundation for a greening of our community’s infrastructure (buildings & transportation) and of ourselves. The objective is to see a 30% reduction in our greenhouse emission by efficiency methods by 2020.
Our vision for the District in 2050 is a place where residents and workers rely on public transit, walking and biking. Cars would run on electricity supplied by solar and wind power. Individuals and businesses have reduced their carbon footprint (CO2) by 80 percent. New and existing buildings achieve net zero energy consumption through increased energy efficiency and a shift to renewable energy sources. No waste is sent to landfills. And most of the food eaten in the district is produced organically and within a few hundred miles.
In 2008 the WCBID worked with the Los Angeles AIA Committee on the Environment (COTE). COTE assisted the WCBID in developing specific measures for the Cool District Plan. On March 15, AIA/LA COTE’s Wilshire Center Cool District Eco Charette conducted the first of two planned charrettes: the first addressed the big picture, or visioning, and on September 17, the second charrette engaged owners and the LADWP directly to develop specific strategies. These charrettes helped the WCBID develop this Plan; a blueprint, to implement the pledge to reduce the district’s GHG emissions by at least 2% per year over the next 40 years (2010-2050). This blueprint includes specific measures and interim goals, designed to achieve the Cool Districts goal.
Plan Elements
The basic approach of this Plan is to do energy and water audits where we are able to work towards reducing the green house emissions by getting the district buildings more energy efficient by 30% and then adding to the buildings alternative energy systems. McKinsey & Company reports that 85% of future incremental electricity needs in 2030 could be met through energy efficiency in buildings, appliances, and industry.
1. Energy/Water Audits
1.1. Walk-Through Audits
1.1.1. After seeing the results of the energy/water audits(commercial & residential apt.) that were provided by the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power (LADWP) at the second charrette, it became clear that these types of audits could be a way to start connecting to each of our buildings within the District about how each building can reduce their energy and water consumption. It is possible to request LADWP assistance in performing a “walk-through” energy assessment of the district facilities. LADWP is committed to assisting its customers in achieving optimum energy efficiency. They survey the facilities with the goal of recognizing specific areas of potential energy and cost savings. The information contained in the surveys will assist the building owners in their efforts to reduce utility consumption and lower their LADWP bills.
1.1.2. A concept is to have DWP employ more individuals to do audits whereby we could get about 90 audits done per year over the next 10 years. Cost of these additional auditors could come from the WC/KCRA funds.
1.2. Investment Grade Audits: These audits are more time consuming but provide greater details as to the savings, and what the cost and payback time would be.
1.3. Once these audits are done and reviewed by the owners there needs to be another team that follows up with each owner to help them plan out these potential energy and cost savings over the coming years. This team of individuals would work with the owners to obtain the various incentives that are available at the local, state and federal levels. A source of individuals could be from President Obama’s proposed Clean Energy Corps which is proposed to stimulate the development of a highly skilled workforce.
2. Office Building Retro Commissioning
2.1. According to EPA/DOE studies over the past 10 years, existing commercial building waste as much as 33% of the energy they use. This is caused by improperly operated systems, damaged or broken system components, non-operating or underutilized controls, and lack of operator awareness. Retro-commissioning has been mandated for all California State owned buildings over 50,000 square feet. Retro-commissioning is the process by which a highly qualified team of engineers and technicians inspect the building mechanical, electrical and plumbing systems to determine the operational capacities and capabilities of the existing equipment, and to determine what discrepancies and other issues might be preventing the building from operating at its maximum efficiency. Often, maintenance and repair personnel are also part of the Retro-commissioning team so that repairs can be performed on the spot as they are discovered. Costs for these services vary with the size of the building and the complexity of the systems, but many projects documented by the DOE and the State have paybacks of several months and internal return on investment of greater than 60%.
2.2. Having proper maintenance done every year and having an expert look at a system and retro commission it to make sure it is running as efficiently as possible can often save 10-25% on the energy costs. Refrigeration or HVAC equipment that is not properly maintained can waste 10 to 20 percent of the energy it uses. Replacing the existing equipment with properly installed and correctly controlled units can save 30-60% of the present cooling costs.
3. Waste Recycling
3.1. Institute a one-bin system which should allow recycling of 85% of building waste. Provide education and training for management team, tenants, facilities and janitorial personal. This program should allow building owners to see a savings in the building trash disposal cost. The concept is one recycling bin where needed and one trash bin for food waste in lunch or kitchen area.
3.2. Institute an E-Waste Recycling (Electronic equipment) round-up twice a year along with lamp, ballast and battery disposal.
3.3. Promote bio-degradable cups and food containers and recycled paper.
3.4. There are companies that can assist us in this program such as Andelson Consulting, Inc. They are currently working with a few of Jamison Services buildings.
3.5. Another company to look at is Crown Disposal. Community Recycling/Crown Disposal is the best local company for achieving high diversion (recycling) rates, bar none. It's the only company that has a full-blown materials recovery facility; they handled source separated materials (like blue bin programs); they also recycle street sweepings from LA and beach trash from Santa Monica; they compost, handle construction debris, food waste - everything. No one else gets their recycling rates for mixed debris (unseparated trash). They're one of the companies involved in LA's food waste pilot.
3.6. Los Angeles Multifamily Residential Recycling Program: There is no cost associated with participating in the program. Many property owners and managers find that there is a cost savings associated with participating in the program. Diverting recyclables away from trash bins often result in a reduced need for multiple trash collection services during the week. Fewer trash pickups during the week can save property owners a substantial amount of money with continued participation in the FREE program. Multifamily residential properties participating in the program will receive the following: FREE recycling service once a week; Blue bins for storage of recyclables; Educational information for residents about materials accepted in the blue bins. See the program website at www.larecycles.org.
4. Environmentally Preferable Purchasing
4.1. We should encourage the buying of environmentally preferable products that are long lasting, high-quality, less toxic, reusable, and easy to recycle. Environmentally preferable products use less materials, water and energy, minimizing the impact on our natural environment. We should follow the State of Californian's lead in Environmentally Preferable Purchasing program.
4.2. We could create a paying club to get discounts on recycled paper (100% post-consumer) and environmentally friendly products for our members.
4.2.1. Purchasing Co-op
4.2.1.1.Cooperative purchasing offers agencies the ability to overcome cost barriers by leveraging their buying power, and can send an unmistakable signal to manufacturers that there will be ongoing demand for environmentally-preferable products. A decade ago, the Council of Great Lakes Governors created PAT (the Purchasing Action Team) to support the market for recycled-content products. If states can work together, District members, other BIDs, and like-minded businesses and individuals can as well. Ten years ago, the City of Los Angeles contracted with a firm to implement an office recycling and cooperative purchasing program for ten office towers, while the Recycled Paper Coalition implemented a small-scale co-op (for copier paper) in one building. Office Depot, among others, offers a purchasing co-op for nonprofit organizations and small businesses. Office Depot is willing to extend co-op membership to Wilshire Center residents as well.
4.2.2. How it Works
4.2.2.1.Buyers would need to identify themselves as a member of the co-op when ordering online or via the phone. Office Depot would extend the co-op discount to the purchaser. There is no centralized ordering or billing. Each buyer would pay at the time of purchase. Discounts can be restricted to designed products, such as recycled-content paper office products (copy paper, file and manila folders, Post-Its, tablets, etc.), as selected by the co-op contact. Office Depot will publish its “Green” catalog of recycled-content products in January. The goal is to purchase items with the highest level of recycled-content. The co-op could offer non-toxic cleaning and maintenance products for home and office use, and institutional/janitorial papers and supplies (hand towels, toilet tissue, napkins, trash bags, cleaning rags), which may require a vendor other than Office Depot.
4.2.2.2.Co-operate for Bigger Changes: Consider a purchasing co-op for hybrid and high-mileage vehicles (in concert with credit unions or other buying groups); solar photovoltaic equipment; energy efficient and environmentally-preferable equipment (from appliances to computers); commercial printing: the hundreds of Wilshire Center businesses can standardize some printed items, such as envelopes, forms, and bags, and convert to 100% post-consumer content with soy-based inks.
5. Tenants Going Green
5.1. A recent (non-technical) audit of an office building was done and saw that about 50-60% of electronics (computers, monitors, and printers) were powered up on a weekend. Tenants were using strips but they weren't turning the power strips off. That’s where the smart strips would come in.
5.2. Turn off Equipment: During off hours, make sure to power down everything – such as computers, monitors, printers, copiers, kitchen equipment, and task lights. Just turning off the monitor and printers can reduce energy use by 15-50%.
5.3. Institute an Energy Awareness Program: Create promotional items; write news releases, link to national campaigns, communications kit.
5.4. Use ENERGY STAR® Equipment: ENERGY STAR labeled computers, copiers, external power adapters, fax machines, laptops, monitors, multifunctional devices, printers, scanners, water coolers, and more. (By automatically switching from full power to sleep mode when not in use, computer uses 70% less energy).
5.5. Harvest Daylight: Turn off lights where natural light is sufficient
5.6. Use Work Station Task Lighting: Direct light at areas where tasks are being performed and use lower wattage for overhead ambient lighting
6. Alternative Energy Infrastructure – (see suggestions from the Second COTE/LA ecocharrette material): Energy infrastructure measures focus on local energy generation, distribution and use.
7. Water Infrastructure (see suggestions from the Second COTE/LA ecocharrette material): Water infrastructure measures focus on stormwater control and collection. Because the problems caused by stormwater are not well-understood, interpretive signage that explains green infrastructure is recommended.
8. Transportation Infrastructure (see suggestions from the Second COTE/LA ecocharrette material): Measures that apply to sustainability principles (energy efficiency and conservation) to diverse aspects of WCBID’s transportation infrastructure.
9. Residential Buildings (see suggestions from the Second COTE/LA ecocharrette material): Measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from residential buildings conserve the energy associated with interior and exterior lighting, building heating and cooling systems, and water supply and treatment.
10. Commercial Buildings (see suggestions from the Second COTE/LA ecocharrette material): Measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from high-rise commercial buildings include ongoing best practices, and upgrades that conserve the energy associated with interior and exterior lighting, building heating and cooling systems, and water supply and treatment.
11. Public Campaign
11.1. The aim is to achieve a participation rate of 30% by 2020 with the objective to get owners/managers and tenants to reduce their carbon footprint. To motivate consumers to sign up, it must deliver compelling messages tailored to key segments of consumers. The message should be credible, snappy, collaborative, meaningful, creative, fun, wired, and seductive. To deliver this message and reach its ambitious signup targets, an integrated marketing, communications and community organizing program will be developed to raise awareness, generate word-of-mouth communications and mobilize volunteers in the District. Using a combination of outreach techniques, such as campaigns aimed at Community Leaders, door-to-door canvassing by volunteers and paid campaigners, online organizing, paid and earned media, and City of Los Angeles support initiatives, this goal can be reached.
11.2. Wilshire Center User Friendly Web Site: The site should contain information on LADWP and other City programs and incentives, rebates along with State and Federal program, and a list of green steps/actions that owners and tenants can take - all for the sake of the District's future as the cleanest, greenest, healthiest District in the North America.
11.3. Use the resources of the Los Angeles Certified Green Business Program; encourage business to take the Los Angeles Certified Green Business Program Pledge.
11.4. Use the resources of the EPA Energy Star site. The District becomes an Energy Star Partner and promotes the Energy Star Challenge. Employ ENERGY STAR tools and resources in our energy improvement efforts in our community. Louisville, KY is a good real-world example of a community active in the fight against global warming. For more information: http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?fuseaction=challenge_community.showIntroduction
11.5. Green Business Promotion Program: Interested businesses are asked to simply join the program with a commitment to make eco friendly changes to operating practices. Green Businesses are promoted through the WCBID website and possibly by the City’s website. Awards are issued once a year to honor all new Green Businesses. Advertisements and related articles may be placed as well. Any business can become a green business-and the District would like to help that process along. To qualify, a business must comply with all applicable federal, state, and local regulations and meet program criteria for conserving resources, preventing pollution, and minimizing waste. Free to all local businesses, the program could offer hands-on support, training, and technical assistance from environmental experts. Green business practices not only help protect the environment, but also the health of employees and customers. All district residents and workers are encouraged to support green businesses and encourage other businesses to become green businesses. See San Francisco Green Business program at www.sfgreenbiz.org.
11.6. Promote Green Teams: Green Team is a national program which helps participants make changes within their own households and neighborhoods by working on common goals with other action-oriented people who are concerned about the impact of their consumption habits on the environment. Each Green Team is comprised of 6-8 people who meet every other week for 12 weeks. The most effective Green Teams are formed by groups of friends, neighbors, co-workers, students or parishioners who know each other. Meetings typically last about one and a half hours, and are often held at lunch or in the evenings. See Denver Green Team program at www.greenprintdenver.org/getinvolved/greenteams.php.
11.7. “Cool Individual” Pledge: We need to begin reducing our global warming carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions as individuals by at least 2% a year over the coming years by reducing our utility consumption, and becoming zero waste individuals by reducing, reusing and recycling. The following steps will get us there - 80% reduction of CO2 by 2050.
11.7.1. Step 1: Take the “Cool Individual” Pledge: The first step toward curbing global warming is to ask yourself and your family to sign on to a 2% Solution Climate Reduction Pledge. This pledge sets the goal of reducing you and your family’s global warming carbon dioxide footprint (CO2) by at least 2 percent a year for each of the next 40 years.
11.7.2. Step 2: Conduct a Global Warming Emissions Inventory: This step is to conduct an inventory of your current global warming emissions. This information will identify the major CO2 sources (and the greatest opportunities for reductions), and will provide a baseline to judge your progress towards the goal. One could possibly receive assistance to conduct a global warming emissions inventory from a variety of sources on the web. The City, Edison, Gas Co., State and Federal Government have web sites that can assist. There are some rebates and incentive programs. The State has a good one: www.fypower.org/. For saving water, there are suggestions at a good site: www.bewaterwise.com.
11.7.3. Step 3: Create a Solutions Plan: While working on the global warming inventory, develop a solutions plan to reduce emissions while lowering energy costs. The energy solutions plan includes six important strategies: Green Vehicles, Public Transportation, Zero Waste, Energy Efficiency, Water Conservation, and Renewable Energy. In some combination, these solutions will form the foundation for a comprehensive energy-saving plan. The Sierra Club's web site (www.sierraclub.org/twopercent/ ) can assist along with many other environmental web sites.
11.7.4. Step 4: Implement and Monitor Progress: It is essential that you put the plan into action and monitor its progress periodically. With a strong commitment, a sound plan, and real action, you and your family will be on its way toward meeting the goals of the 2% Solution Climate Reduction Pledge.
12. Funding Support
12.1. Federal: President Obama has proposed an investment of $150 billion over 10 years to spur the development of renewable and other technologies, promote energy efficiency with green incentives, and advance new fuel and smart electricity infrastructure. This plan would direct funding to the manufacturing sector for job training and transition programs, and would create an estimated 5 million new green jobs. Additional training programs, including a Green Jobs Corps for disadvantaged youth and a Clean Energy Corps, have been proposed to stimulate the development of a highly skilled workforce. The President-Elect's proposed plan also includes the creation of a National Infrastructure Reinvestment Bank to direct $60 billion over 10 years to infrastructure projects that could create some 2 million new jobs and $35 billion annually in economic activity. With strong federal support there should be help that ignite a rebuilt, revived green economy.
12.1.1. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 included a new tax incentive, backed and advocated by the National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) and the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC), to improve the energy efficiency of commercial buildings. The "Commercial Building Tax Deduction" establishes a tax deduction for expenses incurred for energy efficient building expenditures made by a building owner. The deduction is limited to $1.80 per square foot of the property, with allowances for partial deductions for improvements in interior lighting, HVAC and hot water systems, and building envelope systems. The Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 (HR-1424), approved and signed on October 3, 2008, extends the benefits of the Energy Policy Act of 2005 through December 31, 2013.
12.2. State
12.3. Local
12.3.1. LADWP
12.3.2. CRA
12.3.3. WCBID
12.4. Foundations/Grants: By working with the Wilshire Enhancement Group, a 501(c) (3) non-profit, there is possibility of obtaining grants for parts of the Cool District Plan. The Carolyn Foundation funds grants addressing environmental issues, with a focus on renewable energy programs. The Kendall Foundation normally awards grants only to non-profit organizations. The Richard and Rhonda Goldman Fund also provide green grants. The Kresge Foundation Green Building Initiative encourages nonprofit organizations to consider building green. “1% For The Planet” has inspired members of the business community to contribute 1% of sales to environmental groups around the world.
13. Other Suggestions: (suggestions from the First COTE/LA ecocharrette)
13.1. Negotiate a district-wide discount on energy efficient materials and equipment. These materials would include lighting, window film, LEDS, HVAC systems, PV and wind systems. Negotiate a district-wide efficiency rebates/financing with LADWP, Gas Co. and CRA.
13.2. Work with the City of Los Angeles to identify, execute, and fund innovative demonstration projects to determine feasibility and effectiveness in reducing CO2 release, such as on-site wind power generation, geothermal applications, solar thermal, shared utilities and optimized diversity, HVAC upgrade and downsizing strategies, and electrical upgrade and downsizing strategies.
13.3. Leverage energy- and environment-related City programs and services, such as recycling, transit, and water supply.
13.4. Building Solutions (see First COTE/LA ecocharrette material): Evaluate the buildings as a collective and strategize where benefits can be gained by sharing resources. The buildings where we live and work are the single largest contributors (39%) to US greenhouse gas emissions. Reducing these building-related emissions requires a combination of energy efficiency, conservation and alternative energy generation approaches.
13.5. Infrastructure & Open Space Solutions (see COTE/LA ecocharrette material): Evaluate the buildings as a collective and strategize where benefits can be gained by sharing resources.
13.6. Transportation Solutions (see First COTE/LA ecocharrette material): Changes in how we get where we’re going can have a huge impact greenhouse gas emissions. Reducing the number of motor vehicle trips is key.
14. Analysis Tools
14.1. LEED for Existing Buildings: Operations & Maintenance
14.2. U.S. EPA Energy Star Program
14.3. Los Angeles Certified Green Business Program
14.4. LEED for Neighborhood Development
14.5. AIA Sustainability2030
14.6. The 2030 Challenge
15. Issues
15.1. New technical expertise and skills will be required to transition from our carbon-intensive economy to the green economy of the future. Large-scale investment in building efficiency and renewable energy, among other areas, can spur the creation of millions of new, green jobs -- reviving our community while advancing our environmental goals.
15.2. These measures and goals, which would be realized in stages over the next four decades, are part of the blueprint proposed by district staff to meet a WCBID Board approved pledge to reduce Wilshire Center's greenhouse gases 80 percent by 2050. District officials stressed that community cooperation is essential and that the plan, formulated after months of community meetings, is a draft intended to be refined according to further public response. A final version is due to go to the Board in fall of 2009. This is not a plan that's going to be sitting on the shelf. It's a living document. It's incumbent on us all to make this happen. The plan would be achieved by a combination of conservation efforts and the use of renewable energy, such as solar power. The district would help with things like finding financing and energy-saving tactics.
15.3. We now have the California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 (AB 32), which seeks to reduce GHG emissions to 1990 levels by 2020. On December 5, 2007, the California Energy Commission unanimously adopted the California Public Utilities Commission's plan for achieving zero net energy residential and commercial buildings consistent with the adopted (9-18-08) California Long Term Energy Efficiency Strategic Plan. Zero net energy (ZNE) is a general term applied to a building with a net energy consumption of zero over a typical year. To cope with fluctuations in demand, zero energy buildings are typically envisioned as connected to the grid, exporting electricity to the grid when there is a surplus, and drawing electricity when not enough electricity is being produced. 50 percent of existing buildings will be equivalent to zero net energy buildings by 2030 through achievement of deep levels of energy efficiency and clean distributed generation. Generally, when constructing a ZNE building, energy efficiency measures can result in up to 70% savings relative to existing building practices, which then allows for renewables to meet the remaining load. 100% of existing multi-family homes have a 40% decrease in purchased energy from 2008 levels by 2020.
15.4. “Data from the US Energy Information Administration illustrates that buildings are responsible for almost half (48%) of all energy consumption and GHG emissions annually; globally the percentage is even greater. Seventy-six percent (76%) of all power plant-generated electricity is used just to operate buildings. Clearly, immediate action in the Building Sector is essential if we are to avoid hazardous climate change.” (From www.architecture2030.org/current_situation/building_sector.html ) Per the EPA, the residential and commercial end-use sectors accounted for 20 and 18 percent, respectively, of CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion in 2006. Both sectors relied heavily on electricity for meeting energy demands, with 72 and 79 percent, respectively, of their emissions attributable to electricity consumption for lighting, heating, cooling, and operating appliances. The remaining emissions were due to the consumption of natural gas and petroleum for heating and cooking.
15.5. Per the EPA, transportation activities accounted for 33 percent of CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion in 2006. Virtually all of the energy consumed in this end-use sector came from petroleum products. Over 60 percent of the emissions resulted from gasoline consumption for personal vehicle use. The remaining emissions came from other transportation activities, including the combustion of diesel fuel in heavy-duty vehicles and jet fuel in aircraft.
15.6. “The energy used by commercial and industrial buildings in the U.S. is responsible for nearly 50 percent of our national emissions of greenhouse gases” EPA
(Updated 11/29/08:2.2, 5.2, 5.4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 13, 14)
(Updated 12/6/08: 11.3, 14.2, 15.6)
(Updated 12/7/08: 11.3, 14.3)
Updated 12/15/08: 15.3
Updated 1/4/09: 9th paragraph, 11.1
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